Ancient History

Indus Valley Civilization

Discovered in 1921
Belonged to the bronze age
An area of about 1.3 mn sq km
Existed between 3300-1600 BC in three phases: early, mature and late phases
Sites

Early (pre-Harappan)	Mature (Harappan)	Late phase (post-urban)
	Harappa
	Mohenjodaro
	Chanhu-daro
	Lothal
Kalibangan	Kalibangan
Banawali	Banawali (Hissar)
	Sutkagendor (Pakistan)
	Sukotada (Gujarat)
Dholavira (Kutch)	Dholavira	Dholavira
Rakhigarhi (Ghaggar)	Rakhigarhi	Rakhigarhi
		Bhagwanpura
		Manda (Jammu); Chandigarh, Shangol (Punjab); Daulatpur, Mitthal (Haryana); Alamgirpur. Hulas (West UP)

Site	Remarkable Feature
Sutkagendor – Surkotada	Marked by a citadel
Mohenjo-daro	Great Bath; Large granary Impressive drainage system Piece of woven cotton Mother Goddess Seal of pashu-pati
Kalibangan	Grain and plough

Town planning
- Grid system
The Indus people were the earliest to produce cotton

Aryans

Male dominated

Pastoral

Horse was a significant animal

Rig veda – Consists of 10 mandalas (books): Book 1 and 10 are relatively new

Earliest specimen of Indo-European language: 2200 BC inscription in Iran. Later in the Hittite inscriptions in Anatolia

1500 BC came to India

Sindhu is the river par excellence for them

Saraswati is the best of the rivers in Rig Veda

Panchajana – five tribes into which Aryans were divided

Used ploughshare

Land did not form a well-established type of private property

Metal working was known

Rajan – king

Samiti, sabha, vidatha,gana – tribal assembly

Jainism

24 tirthankaras.

First: Rishab Dev

23^rd: Parshavnath

Mahavir (599 BC – 527 BC) or (540 BC – 468 BC)

In Kundagrama near Vaishali

Father – Siddartha (Jnatrika clan)

Mother – Trishala (sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka)

Died at Pavapuri near Rajgir

Five doctrines: Do not – violence, steal, lie, acquire property and do observe brahmacharya

Did not condemn the varna system

Triratna: right knowledge, right faith, right action

Spread to Kalinga in first century BC. King Kharavela

Used Prakrit language. Literature written in Ardhamagadhi

Prepared the grammar of Apabhramsha

Contributed to the growth of Kannada

Buddhism

563 – 483 BC – Lumbini, Kapilavastu, Nepal. Shakya family.

Suddhodan and Mahamaya

Death: Kushinagar (Kasia in Deoria distt of UP)

Eight-fold path (for end of misery)

Right observation
Right determination
Right speech
Right action
Right livelihood
Right exercise
Right memory
Right meditation

Do not

Covet other’s property
Commit violence
Lie
Use intoxicants
Indulge in corrupt practices

No god or atman exists

Used Pali

Main elements of Buddhism: Buddha, Sangha, Dhamma

Brahamana ruler Pashyamitra Shunga persecuted the Buddhists

Mihirakula (Huna king) killed Buddhists

Buddhist text: Suttanipata

Gandhara Art

First human statues worshipped

Barabar hills: Caves for monks

Territorial States

Kingdoms and Capitals

Kingdom	Capital
Kapilavastu	Piprahwa
Lichchhavis	Vaishali
Mahajanpadas
Anga	Champa
Kashi	Varanasi
Koshala	Shravasti
Mallas	Kushinara
Vatsa/Vamsa	Kaushambi
Avanti	Ujjain (North)/ Mahishamati (South)
Magadha	Rajgir (Girivraja)
Chedi/Cheti
Kuru
Panchala
Matsya
Surasena	Mathura
Ashmaka
Gandhara
Kamboja
Vriji/Vajji	Mithila

Satvanahanas	Paithan
Pandya	Madurai
Chola	Puhar (kaveripattanam)
Chalyukyas	Badami (Bijapur)
Pallavas	Kanchi
Kadambas	Vijayanti
Gangas	Kolar

First Magadhan Empire

Dyansty	Ruler	Remark
Haryanka	Bimbisara	Contemporary of Buddha
	Ajatsatru
	Udayin	Built fort on the confluence of Ganga and Son at Patna
Shishunagas	–	Destroyed the power of Avanti
Nandas (most powerful rulers of Magadha)	Mahapadma Nanda

Mauryas (Patliputra)
Mauryas had a very elaborate bureaucracy	Chandragupta Maurya	Megasthenes visited during his time
	Bindusara	Links with Greek princes
	Ashoka	Buddhism
Shunga
	Pushyamitra Shunga	Destroyed the Mauryan empire. Killed Maurya king Brihadratha

Balisadhaka – tax collectors during the times of Nandas

Shaulkiki or shulkadhyakshas were also toll collectors

Shakyas and Lichchhavis were republics

Literature

Book	Author/Language	Remark
Digha Nikaya	Pali	Buddhist text

North-West India

Menander (Milinda) was the most famous Indo-Greek ruler.

His capital at Sakala (Sialkot)
Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena (Nagarjuna)

Shakas

Succeeded the Greeks in North West
Rudradaman I : most famous ruler
- He issued first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit

Parthians

Followed Shakas
Famous king: Gondophernes
- Thomas came during his reign

Kushans

Aka Yuechis or Tocharians
Kadphises was the first king
Kanishka is the most famous ruler
- Started the Shaka era in 78 AD
- Held the Buddhist council in Kashmir where the doctrines of Mahayana form were finalized
- Patronized Ashvaghosa
Kushan inscriptions and coins found at Toprak Kala in Khorezm
Kushanas were the first rulers to issue gold coins on a large scale
Introduced the Satrap system of government
They controlled the Silk Route
Worshipped both Shiva and Buddha. Some worshipped Vishnu too.
Kanishka built a large number of Stupas

Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a piller in honor of Vasudeva near Vidisa.

Appointed governors called strategos

Deccan

Satavahanas

Succeeded Mauryas in Deccan
Brahmana rulers
Gautamiputra Satkarni (AD 106-130)
Vashishthiputra Pulimayi: Capital at Paithan
Started the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahmanas and Buddhist Monks
Yajna Sri Satakarni
Chaityas (Buddhist temples) and Viharas (monastaries) were constructed during their times
- Most famous Chaitya at Karle in Deccan
Show trace of matrilineal social structure
Administration
- Ahara – district
- Officials – amatyas or mahamatras
- Gaulmika – head of a small military regiment and look after administration in rural areas
- Three grades of feudatories: raja, mahabhoja, senapati
- Language: Prakrit

South

Pandya

Sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus

Chola

Elara conquered Sri Lanka
Karikala founded Puhar aka Kaveripatnam which was their capital

Cheras

Kerala and parts of TN
Senguttavan is the greatest king
Roman influence: Muziris. Also built a temple of Augustus

Vellalas – rich peasants

Arasar – ruling class

Pariyars – agricultural labourers

Shrent – artisan guilds

Chalukyas

Badami (Bijapur)
Pulakesin II was the important ruler
Court poet Ravikirti wrote his eulogy in the Aihole inscription

Pallavas

They succeeded the Ikshvakus
Kanchipuram was their capital
Came in conflict with kadambas
- Mayurasharman had founded the Kadamba kingdom (Capital: Vijayanti/Banavasi)
Nasrimhavarman occupied the Chalukya capital Vatapi in 642 AD
- Assumed the title of Vatapikonda
Constructed a number of temples
Ratha temples at Mahabs built by Narsimhavarman who founded Mahabs
Pattadakal: Papanatha temple and Virupaksha temple
Kailashnath temple at Kanchi

One of the major revolt in the south was the Kalabhras revolt. It was so widespread that it could be put down only through the joint efforts of the Pandyas, the Pallavas and the Chalukyas

Three types of villages: Ur (commoners), Sabha (Brahmans), Nagaram (traders etc)

Foreign Invasions

Major events

326-325 BC

Alexander’s invasion

Literature

Book	Author
Mudrarakshasa (play)	Vishakhadatta
Indika	Megasthenes
Milind Panho	Buddhist literature of questions of Manender to Nagarjuna
Buddhacharita	Ashvaghosha
Saundarananda (Sanskrit kavya)	Ashvaghosha
Mahavastu (Buddhist-hybrid Sanskrit)
Divyavandan (Buddhist-hybrid Sanskrit)
Kamsutra	Vatsyayana
Charaksamhita	Charaka
Gathasaptasatti (Prakrit book)	Hala (Satavahana king)
Tolkkappiyam (deals with grammar and poetics)
Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are Tamil epics	<Ilango Adigal? (silappadikaram)>
Natural History (Latin)	Pliny (Roman writer)
Mrichchhakatika	Shudraka
Abhijnanashakuntalam	Kalidasa
Amarakosha	Amarasimha
Romaka Sidhanta (Astronomy)
Harshacharita	Banabhatta
Priyadarshika; Ratnavali; and Nagananda (plays)	Harshavardhana
Astadhyayi	Panini
Mahabhashika	Patanjali
Suryasiddhanta	A treatise on astronomy. Authorship disputed.
Brihatsamhita	Varahmira (5^th CE)
Sushrutsamhita	Sushrut (2^nd CE)
Charaksamhita	Charak (2^nd CE)

Travelers

Traveler	During time of	Work
Megasthenes (ambassador of Seleucus)	Chandragupta Maurya	Indika
Fa Hein	Chandragupta Vikramaditya
Hsuan Tsang	Harshavardhana

Pliny wrote Naturalis Historia

Philosophy

Six schools

School	Philosophy	Major proponent
Samkhaya	Materialistic. No god. Later turned spiritualistic. Prakriti-Purusha. Salvation through knowledge acquired through pratyaksha, anumana, shabda	Kapila
Yoga	Slavation through meditation and physical application
Nyaya	System of logic. Salvation through acquisition of knowledge.
Vaisheshika	Discussion of material elements or dravya. Atom theory. (beginning of physics). Belief in god.
Mimansa	Vedas contain the eternal truth. Reasoning provided for vedic rituals. Perform vedic rites for salvation.
Vedanta	Brahmasutra. Brahma is the reality. Atma is identical with Brahma.	Shankara (Advaita) – born in Kerala Ramanuja (Vishistadvaita) Shuddhadvaita (Vallabha)

Lokayata	Materialistic philosophy.	Charavaka

Mauryan officers

Rajukas – a class of officers appointed by Ashoka for administration of justice

Dhammamahamatras – officers of Ashoka for propagating dharma among various social groups

Tirthas – important functionaries

Samaharta – highest officer for tax assessment

Sannidhata – chief custodian of the state treasury

Sangam literature

Sangam was an assembly of Tamil poets held under royal patronage in Madurai
Compiled around 300-600 AD
Can be divided into two groups: narrative and didactic
Narrative: Melkanakku (or Eighteen Major Works)
Didactic: Kilkanakku (Eighteen minor works)
Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are Tamil epics

Misc

Shataka was a special type of cloth made at Mathura
Artisan guilds were called shrents
Uttarapatha was a sea route most frequently in use
Gomat – wealthy person

Guptas

After the fall of Kushans and Satvahanas in mid 3^rd century AD
Perhaps of Vaishya origin
Chandragupta 1- Samudragupta – Chandragupta II – Kumargupta – Skandagupta
Capital: Patliputra
Chandragupta I
- Started the Gupta era in AD 319-20
Samudragupta (aka Napoleon of India)
- Delighted in violence and conquest
- Court poet: Harishena
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) [375-415 AD]
- Exercised indirect influence over the Central Indian kingdom of Prabhavati through his daughter
- Ujjain was his second capital
- Navratnas
- Kalidasa, Varahmira and Amarsimha were at his court
- Fa-hsien visited India
Royal seal: Garuda
Decline in long distance trade
Emergence of priestly landlords
Position of shudras improved
Subordination of women
Buddhism did not receive royal patronage
Golden age of ancient India
- Ajanta Paintings <not by Guptas but mostly during their period>
- Nalanda university flourished
- 13 plays written by Bhasa
- Mrichchhakatika – Shudraka
- Kalidasa
- Plays were mostly comic
- Ramayana and Mahabharata compiled
- Development of Sanskrit Grammar
- Aryabhatiya – Aryabhatta
- Romaka Sidhanta – book on astronomy
Was poor in architecture
Huna invasion made the empire weak

Vishti – forced labour by peasants for the army officials

Harshavardhana

After the fall of Guptas
Capital: Kanauj
Banabhatta: court poet (wrote Harshacharita)
Ran the administration on similar lines as Guptas
Law and order: not well maintained
Nalanda flourished as a centre of Buddhist learning
Became a great parton of Buddhism (was a Shaiva earlier)
Convened a grand assembly as Kanauj to widely publicise the doctrines of Mahayana
Authored three dramas: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda

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